Spanish Civil War
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Causes of war: Economic, political, ideological, social, etc. causes of war; short and long term causes
Tactics of war: Mobilization of human and economic resources; tactics; international involvement, influence, and resources
Impact of war: Short and long term impacts; economic, political, social, demographic impact; change in the role and status of women
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Spain between 1918-1939: Political, economic, social conditions in Spain; Primo de Rivera regime; polarization of political parties under the Second Republic; Manuel Azaña and Gil Robles; longer-term causes of the civil war, foreign involvement, reasons for Nationalist victory under Franco
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Causes of the war
Economic
Spain failed to modernize the same way other European powers had
This led to many defeats in battle, which lost the government support
Early 1800’s to 1910’s
Modernized rapidly between 1910 and 1930
66% of workers were in agriculture in 1910, 46% in 1930
Industrial employment increased from 15.8% to 26.5%
Service sector grew rapidly
Underdeveloped compared to other western countries, but was transforming rapidly
Limited industry, mainly concentrated in northern regions (Asturias, Cantabria, Basque Country)
Workers had long hours, bad conditions, and low wages
This encouraged the creation of trade unions
Led to organized strikes, which were often violent
This hindered the growth of a strong socialist movement
Basque and Catalunya wanted independence, partially due to their strong industry
Catalunya produced textiles
Basque produced iron
Diverse & strong agriculture in Valencia
Army had financial problems
Officers were paid more than average soldiers
Couldn’t afford tanks, hospitals, or training
General strike in 1917
This was stopped by the army
Working class violence from 1917-1923
Grew in countryside and towns
Post-war economic depression made this worse
Primo de Rivera attempted to help the poor
Created strong economic growth at first
He then failed to stop the economy from deteriorating
Radical and quick economic reforms annoyed conservatives and right-wing
Day laborers were guaranteed 8-hour working day
Overtime pay required by law
This annoyed landowners
Low employment rate in southern Spain
Great Depression
Despite high self-employment and high protective tariffs, Spain suffered
Food prices & exports fell
Led to Primo de Rivera’s resignation
Arbitration scheme was ignored by landowners
Attempted to protect local workers by preventing landowners from bringing in workers from somewhere else, but landowners just ignored it
Extreme polarization of wealth in rural areas
Landowners were very rich while the poor struggled to make enough money to survive
Economic reforms that tried to fix this were opposed or ignored
In Sevilla, 5% of the population owned 72% of the farming land
In Cadiz, 3% owned 67%
Huge estates called Latifundios owned by the wealthy elites
They employed the local poor worker population sometimes
Laborers stayed poor
Hired by the day, no financial security
Unemployment was common
Availability of work was seasonal due to one-crop farming
About 200 work days a year
Some farms only produced one crop, which meant it wouldn’t grow during some seasons. The landowners were fine because they could afford to buy food elsewhere but the workers couldn’t work and thus couldn’t buy food.
Wages were low
Workers strikes were rarely successful
Mass industry employment
Many people moved to urban areas
Poverty in larger towns/cities due to the larger population
Dissatisfied workers had the desire for change
Left wing government (1931-3, 1936)’s reforms were limited in their effectiveness
Ideological
Spanish politics were deeply influenced by diverging ideologies before the war
The Church’s power was unpopular among socialists, who called for the secularization of the state (Separation of church and state)
The Socialists resented the Church due to its power and supposed corruption
Resentment led to attacks on the Church from Socialists, such as burning churches and killing priests
In 1916, the Socialists called for the separation of church and state, abolition of the army, end of the monarchy, and a guaranteed 7 hour work day
The Church relied on the support from the elites, as they funded its activities, meaning they were less focused on the middle and working classes and thus alienated them
1931 Municipal elections showed support for an anti-monarchist government, as the King had become deeply unpopular due to mismanagement and failures
King went into exile
Attacks on the church led by Manuel Azaña were determined to break the Church’s power
Stopped the government paying priests
Suspended religious education
Prohibited religious processions
Laws upset millions of Spaniards
Religion was a powerful dividing force in Spain, as Spanish society was divided between those who supported religion and those who were against it
Previous monarchist sentiments faded as the King failed to maintain stability
Due to religious sentiment, many voted for CEDA in the 1933 elections, giving the right-wing power in the government
The government was not as much against religion as it was against the power of the Church, but in attempts to reduce its power they alienated many people in the Catholic Spanish middle class
When the Popular Front gained power again in 1936, they closed Catholic schools and repressed religion in many areas
Separatism in regions such as Catalunya and Basque country, as they believed they weren’t being represented and were being oppressed by the state
Strong Catalan and Basque nationalism
The government believed that they would only survive through unity, and thus needed to get rid of the ones promoting disunity
Working class anger at the social injustices, primarily economic
Political
Long-Term
Separatism in Catalunya and Basque
Popularity increased with their economic importance to Spain
Believed they weren’t valued enough by the government
Insufficient investment in these regions - investment from the government was not equal to the wealth they generated
Only 1/20 of the money they generated was invested back in the regions
Instability since the early 1900’s
Unpopular governments
Separatism
Collapse of Monarchy
Constitutional monarchy
“Democratic” government was not very democratic, only middle and upper class have the right to vote
Peasants opposed monarchy and protested
Elites supported the monarchy because they wanted to keep their money and land
Left vs right-wing division
Primo de Rivera regime (See below, not necessary for Standard Level)
Each was scared of the other’s government control, led to fighting within government
Republicans vs Monarchists, secularist vs religious
Government was failing to fulfill its duty to maintain law and order
Defeat in the Spanish-American war in 1898
Lost last of overseas territories in America
Lost economic output from farming and mining resources
Lowered Spanish morale and trust in the government
Weakened the government
Parliamentary monarchy established in 1871
Appointed a Prime Minister, known as the Cortes
Real power lay in the hands of the wealthy elites
Unstable government
Few people had the right to vote
Genuine democracy introduced in 1931 with the Second Republic
Military blamed the government for difficulty in suppressing Moroccan revolts
Claimed the government was keeping the soldiers poorly equipped
Losses in Morocco - 1921
Spain lost 15000 men
Partially King’s fault because he sent a telegram to generals which led to a lack of caution
Short Term
Spain became a republic in 1931
Faced numerous social, economic, & political problems
Municipal elections of 1931
Created the Second Republic
King went into exile
Church and army didn’t try to save him, though they had previously supported him, because he was deeply unpopular
Left won, this angered the right
Power was no longer in the hands of the oligarchy
Attacks on Church - Azaña’s (Prime Minister of the Second Republic) reforms
Church had strong control over the government before 1931
Government stopped paying priests
Suspended religious education, this was a controversial move
Jesuits dissolved
Worked in education, health, and research
Alienated members of the Catholic middle class
Attempt to separate Church & State
New legislation under Azaña
Removed Church’s power
Always angered a group of people, no matter what he did
His reforms to protect workers were usually ignored by landlords
Army reforms
Azaña was responsible
Reduce power of the army
Encouraged thousands of officers to resign
Insisted on a non-political army
This upset the military, as they wanted political power
Generals didn’t like the new treatment from the government
Attempted coup by General Sanjurjo in 1932
Badly planned, easily defeated
Reforms accidentally made army more efficient, which helped in the 1936 uprising
Anarchists
Government tried to workers’ demands while not upsetting elites
They achieved neither goal
Anarchists (Political Party CNT) were hostile
Strikes and uprisings
Caused disorder
Undermined the government
Casas Viejas - January 1933
Bad conditions for the people living in this town - High unemployment made people responsive to anarchist ideals
Town destroyed by civil guards
Political disaster
Many people lost trust in the government - Would the government protect them or hurt them?
Showed the government didn’t have control over the military, land issues, and the political stage
Right-wing government then won the election in November 1933
CEDA
See ‘Political Actors’ section
Came from combination of small right-wing groups
Funded by landowners & Juan March
March was an enemy of the republic
Led by Gil Robles
UGT
Socialist Union
Trade unions
Esquerra Republicana de Cataluña
Republican left-wing party
Led the government after Cataluña was granted partial independence in 1932
Gil Robles
General Information
Key critic of Azaña’s government
Undid all of Azaña’s reforms and did the opposite of what he was trying to do
Rallied support from Monarchists and Catholics
‘Accidentalist’ political theory
Ruling regime was irrelevant as long as it abided by religious principles
Founded CEDA
Largest right-wing party in the 1933 elections, won the election
Led the National Front that opposed the Popular Front in the 1936 elections
Tried to prevent the formation of the Popular Front by urging Prime Minister Portela to declare martial law
Sent a message to Francisco Franco suggesting he lead the army against the formation of a Left-wing government
Was informed of the coup plot and supported CEDA monetarily
Aims
Oppose Azaña’s government
Maintain religious values
Apathetic to economic reforms
Only placed importance on the Church and religion
Very nationalistic aims
Sometimes, his land reforms aligned with left-wing ideals, but this was rare
Possibly use military to depose left-wing government and instate CEDA
Destroy the revolution (Popular Front) and their anti-clericalist values
Removal of anti-clericalist laws, reform Jesuits
Policies
Stopped land reforms
Returned the land to the elites
Cut public spending, including education
Promoted the Catholic Church’s role in society
Church was given control over education, clerics paid by the state
Overturned the Small Holdings Act
Reversed the changes from the left-wing government
Suspended Catalan and Basque autonomy
Included CEDA in the government
Actions
Established CEDA in 1933
Served as prime minister between 1935-6 until the Left government won again
Promoted members of anti-republican military unions into positions of power
Fostered the coup
Did not confront ultranationalist trends in the 1930s, tried to modernize Spain while maintaining traditional values
Sympathized with the Falange
Political Actors
Acción National (Popular)
Catholic-right
Founded after the creation of the Second Republic
Aimed to defend, “Religion, family, order, labor, and ownership”
Changed its name to Acción Popular in 1932
Forerunner to CEDA
Comunion Tradicionalista
Carlists (Supported the King)
Generally wealthy landowners, as they benefitted from the King’s rule
Defended the King, aimed to reinstate monarchy
Represented by Alfonso XIII
CEDA
Right-wing government
Catholic Conservatives
Led by Gil Robles
Extreme nationalism
Confederación Española de Derechas Áutonomas
Formed in 1933
Aimed to protect “Christian civilization”
Opposed Republican legislation
Miguel Primo de Rivera
Successes and failures have their own section below for Higher Level
“Primo’s entire revolution from above contained seeds of its own failure. In trying to tackle the grievances of so many different groups simultaneously, he finished up satisfying none…” - Christopher J Ross
Spanish dictator between 1923-30
Took control because of previous Spanish instability
12 unsuccessful governments between 1918-23
Primo de Rivera overthrew the Liberal government of Garcia Prieto in September 1923
Military dictator
Tried to establish an authoritarian right-wing government based off Italy and Mussolini
Did try to fix Spain’s problems, but ultimately failed
The Monarchy supported his regime in the beginning
Regime very popular among Spanish citizens
Suspended elections, trial by jury, and the normal political process
Dictatorship formally ended in 1925 but Primo de Rivera remained Prime Minister until 1930
Had successful economic policy until 1929, when the economy failed due to the Wall Street crash
Gained support from the Socialists and the Communists
Worked with the Socialists, persecuted Anarchists, ultimately made the political divide worse
Started various infrastructure projects
Roads, railways, electrification
These projects were badly needed, Spain had poor infrastructure
Implemented high tariffs on imported goods
Under Primo de Rivera, industrial production developed at 3 times the rate it did before 1923
Ended the war in Morocco
Recognized degrees from Catholic universities, this angered the Liberals/reformists
Built 2,000 new schools and modernized 2,000 old schools
Built cheap housing for workers
Increased maternity benefits for women
Ran up massive debts, which made the effects of the Great Depression worse and put Primo de Rivera in a bad situation
Public projects were financed using government loans, which couldn’t be paid back
Did not address land reforms in rural areas
Alienated the most powerful people, such as the elites and landowners
Landowners lost influence because of his regime
Caused the currency value to fall, which effectively destroyed the savings of the middle class, this angered the people
Censored the press
Wall street crash caused the end of his regime
Unemployment increased
Protectionist policies failed
Food prices fell
Lost the backing of the king and the support of the people, resigned in 1930, ultimately didn’t solve any economic problems and didn’t improve stability
Francisco Franco
Major General in the military
Determined to make Spain great again, like it was during the peak of the Spanish Empire
Used terror tactics to make his troops work harder
See tactics section below
Fought with the Army of Africa in Morocco, this made him very experienced
He was sent to the Canary Islands shortly before the coup due to Azaña’s attempt to sedate the military
Flew back to Morocco in civilian clothes as to not be caught, launched the coup from there
Didn’t start the coup, but rose to the top through efficiency and being one of the only surviving generals
Also demanded control
Also took part in a lot of propaganda
Had lots of media attention
Was seen as the face of the war
Got the support of Germany and Italy
CNT
Anarchists
Syndicalists
Workers aiming to unionize and obtain demands through strikes to gain control over production and social ownership
200,000 members by 1918
Very strong in Catalunya
Left-wing, joined the Republicans in the war
Stood for anti-politicism
Get rid of traditional politics, make government reforms
Set up in 1910
Acción Republicana
Left-wing party
Founded by Manuel Azaña in the 1920’s
One of the governing parties of the left-wing government between 1931-33
Merged with other left-wing parties in April 1934 to form Izquierda Republicana
Falangists/Nationalists
Can be loosely described as fascist
Merged with the Carlists in 1937
Became the only party after the war when Franco abolished all other parties
Led by Jose Antonio Primo de Rivera (Son of Miguel Primo de Rivera)
Founded Falange in 1933
Ran in the 1933 General Election
Tried and failed to form an official fascist party
Endorsed the 1936 coup, but later attempted to stop it
Arrested when the war started, tried for treason, and executed in the first months of war
Popular Front
Formed in January 1936
Led by Manuel Azaña
Formed from many political parties; PUOM (Marxists), Communists, Republican Left, and CNT (Anarchists)
The Republican side of the war
Dissolved in 1939
Calvo Sotelo
Minister of Finance under Primo de Rivera
Leading figurehead of the Second Republic
Monarchist, as he benefitted from the King’s rule
Assassinated in July 1936
His assassination was used as a reason for Franco and the Falange to commence the coup
The military was involved in his assassination, which is why there was so much public backlash
Alfonso XIII
King of Spain until 1930
Highly unpopular among the people
Resigned due to unpopularity
Was not supported by the Church and the military by the end of his reign, though he was supported before
Manuel Azaña
General Information
Led two of the three Republican governments between 1931-33 and 1936
Attempted to implement liberalist reforms, though many of his policies were undone when the Right won the election in 1933
Was not socialist nor radical
Anti-church, anti-clerical. Alienated conservative Christians through reforms that reduced the Church’s power
“All the convents in Madrid are not worth the life of a single Republican”
Unpopular policies led to opposition from both the Left and Right
Left-leaning critics said policies were too limited, Right-leaning critics disliked the reforms entirely
In 1936, he released political prisoners, included the socialists and communists in the government, and condoned the peasants seizing land from landowners
Opposed to Monarchists, Clericalists (Church), and CEDA
Attempted to suppress Falange
Failed to stop violence from radical left-wing groups, maintained that the real problem was the right
Ordered over 200 political assassinations
Did not respond quickly enough to the murder of Calvo Sotelo
Was unable to defuse the right-wing plot to overthrow the government
Aims
Secularization of the state - Reduction of the Church’s power
Agrarian reforms
Get rid of Latifundios
Redistribute land to the peasant workers
Military reforms
Reduce the number of officers
Reduce military size, power, and influence
Modernize military
Regional autonomy
Gave more autonomy to Catalunya and Basque
Unpopular choice among the right, this was undone when CEDA won in 1933
Democratic & Republican governance
Consolidate power of the government
Create a liberal and democratic government
Allow political pluralism (Multiple parties involved in the government)
Modernize institutions
Social justice
Improve working and living conditions for workers
General aims
Keep the government stable
Keep the left-wing government in power
Reform the government
Raise government’s power while also lowering other institutions power - Military and Church
Azaña failed to reach his aims
Policies
Policies generally followed aims
Governmental reforms
Educational
Reduce Church’s influence over education
Modernize
Social
Agrarian - Farming
More power to the peasants
Less power to landowners, equality for everyone
Military
Reduce military’s power and influence
Prevent a coup
Gave Catalunya autonomy
Policies opposed monarchists, clericalists, and CEDA
He had highly criticized policies
Law of the Defense of the Republic
Keep the Republic in power
Created discontent from Falange, Monarchists, and Anarchists
Policies alienated many people, he couldn’t satisfy everyone
Actions
Similar to aims
Called for abdication of King Alfonso XIII in 1930
Encouraged peasants seizing land & countryside violence
Legitimized the seized land, angered the elites and previous landowners who had their land stolen
Increased anarchist militia violence
Bombings & Assassinations
Formed the Popular Front
Coalition of anti-Falangist political parties
Got arrested and released between terms in office
Knew about the coup plan, but was unable to prevent it
Officers had support from the Falange and other alienated groups
Successes / Failures of Primo de Rivera (HL)
Successes
Regional
Initially created a Catalan national assembly and planned to do the same in Basque
Basque/Catalan books were tolerated
Social-Economic
Implemented compulsory arbitration of labor disputes to improve relations between bosses and workers, built on voluntary schemes
Gave the labor unions more influence
This is why the Socialists and the UGT were quick to work with the government
Started projects that built roads and irrigation schemes, and started a railway network across the Pyrenees into France
Railroads increased iron and steel production
Built 2000 new schools
Though the project started before his regime, the Barcelona Metro opened in 1924
Built dams to increase electricity production, this both provided water for irrigation to farms and allowed electricity to reach rural regions
Foreign trade increased 3x between 1923 and 1927
Unemployment decreased
Political
Supported the Socialist Trade Union movement (UGT)
Set up a new “Patriotic Union” party with the aim of uniting the people
Established a “National Assembly” to give the people representation
Military
Won the war in Morocco (With French assistance) in 1926
Primo’s introduction of promotion by merit was popular among African troops
Religious
Primo de Rivera had no religious successes
Failures
Regional
Early concessions granted to Catalunya were withdrawn and their flag was banned when it became clear that the new assembly would not support the regime
Repressed separatists
Did this by trying to destroy Catalan culture, such as banning the sardana dance and banning the Catalan language from church services
His reforms interfered with the interests of the traditional elite, which reduced his power
Social-Economic
Arbitration scheme did not extend to the countryside due to landowner opposition
Huge public spending led to inflation, which the poor could not handle but the rich could, worsening the social divides
Finance minister Sotelo failed to reform the tax system, meant reliance on foreign loans and credit, which left the country more vulnerable to the effects of the Great Depression after 1929
While Spain benefitted from the economic boom in Europe post-war, the benefits were mainly seen by the wealthy
He did not tackle agrarian reforms because it would have angered the landowning elites
Political
Banned the Anarchist Trade Union movement (CNT)
Since the CNT no longer had Socialist support, the strikes they staged were weak and were violently crushed by the military
The UGT refused to join his national assembly, which was seen as less powerful as the Cortes that he had dissolved
His “Patriotic Union” party never gained much support
Upon taking power, he declared martial law and fired civilian politicians, to then replace them with army officers
The Cortes complained to the king, but Alfonso dismissed them
Exiled critics of the regime such as Miguel de Unamuno and Vicente Blasco Ibanez
Censored the press
When intellectuals criticized the government, Primo de Rivera closed El Ateneo, which was Spain’s most famous politics and literary club
Military
War in Morocco was a serious drain on resources
Primo had hoped to withdraw peacefully with a negotiated settlement but the army opposed this plan
The promotion by merit scheme was deeply unpopular among the powerful Artillery Corps, which attempted a coup against Primo in 1928
Religious
Degrees awarded by Catholic universities were given official recognition, this was a controversial move
1938
Nationalist Successes
Retook Teruel
Controlled most of Spain at the beginning of the year
Had a larger army
Marched through Catalunya to the Mediterranean in 6 weeks
Resisted the Republican advance attempts
Republican Successes
Many gains across the Ebo river
Still held Madrid
Mobilization
Nationalists
Had the Army of Africa, started with the agricultural regions, and had support from Germany and Italy
Got economic aid from other countries
Due to their control of the agricultural regions, they had enough food to feed their army, the people, and the towns they captured
Standard of living did not change for Nationalist region
They had food
There were no air raids, as the Republicans could never get enough air power
Prices were controlled
Business as usual
Republicans
Had industrial regions, support from the USSR, and the gold reserves
Paid all of the gold reserves to the USSR for equipment
Food shortages
Food prices tripled but wages only rose 15%
Republic was slowly starved
Standard of living was greatly reduced by the lack of supplies
No food, constant air raids
Overall
Almost the entire Spanish population was mobilized, some into the army, some into the arms and supporting industry
Many civilians actively chose to join the war
Each person under their political party had a reason to fight, as they wanted government control for their goals
Both Nationalists and Republicans mobilized most of their male population, but the Nationalists did it much more quickly and efficiently
Women either fought in the war (on the Republicans side) or worked in supporting industry
Agriculture and industry could not support the war
Not enough munitions industry
Collectivization
Establishment of collectives in industry and agriculture
Owned and controlled by the workforce
2000 factories collectivized
2500 agricultural collectives set up
Involved 1.5 million people
70% of all enterprises in Barcelona collectivized, including transport and public utilities
30% collectivized in Madrid
Catalan industry was vital to the public
Industry in the north was important to the Republicans, but they lost it
1936
Start of the war
Nationalist Successes
Controlled the northwest, had key agriculture
Had more well-trained soldiers
Successful transport from Africa by Germany and Italy
Captured important cities quickly, such as Toledo
Republican Successes
Controlled key industry in Basque and Asturias
Controlled Madrid and Barcelona
Possessed the majority of Spain’s industry
Controlled the gold reserves
Controlled primary agriculture
Kept loyalty of the navy and air force
Got support from the USSR
Halted sieges of Madrid
Had more manpower
Nationalists
Political Strengths
Had political unity
More organized
Had a stronger propaganda effort
Had the Church’s support
Military Strengths
Eventually had a unified command
Originally was somewhat not unified, but quickly became unified, which is a strength the Republicans did not have
Accepted Franco’s leadership, which made the command more efficient
Won offensives and defensive battles due to more supply and better command
Good leadership
Working communication systems
Had enough equipment
Franco was concerned for his soldiers
Economic Strengths
Backed by the Spanish business community
Controlled agricultural regions at first then gained key industry by 1937
Had access to trade through Portugal and Gibraltar
Franco could buy oil & rubber
Foreign Assistance Strengths
Foreign support from Germany and Italy
Air support was important
$700 million in foreign aid
Received higher quality supplies
Germans sent 16,000 troops, 800 planes, and 200 tanks
Italians sent; 70-75000 troops, 750 planes, 150 tanks, 1 cruiser, 4 destroyers, 2 submarines, 1800 artillery guns, 1400 mortars, 6700 trucks, 1600 tons of aircraft bombs, 320 million small arms cartridges, 7.5 million artillery rounds, and 241000 rifles
Presented the Nationalists with a bill for £40,000,000 (1939 prices) for the assistance, Mussolini waved a quarter of it, and the rest was paid in installments between 1942 and 1962
Portugal sent 20,000 troops, some munitions, and allowed aid to pass through their borders
German airlift helped start the war
Most assistance was in donations
Political Weaknesses
No records
Military Weaknesses
Disunity when the war started
Economic Weaknesses
Did not have access to Spain’s gold reserves
Foreign Assistance Weaknesses
No records
The Spanish Civil War
Tactics / Practices
Practices
Before the war
Repression of a strike in Asturias by the Right-wing government in 1934
Franco’s army was sent to destroy it
3 thousand violently killed, 30 thousand sent to prisons or exiled
Nationalist terror tactics
Shelling & bombing towns in Asturias
The Army of Africa was significantly more experienced than the Republican militias, which led to them having important victories despite being outnumbered, such as the town of Talavera de la Reina that fell in a single day
At first, marched straight to Madrid, which caused fierce fighting
Destruction of Guernica in 1937, show of brutal force
Massacred anyone who resisted the Nationalist rule
Massacre of Badajoz, 2000 people killed by the Army of Africa
Diverted troops to Toledo instead of marching to Madrid directly
Siege of Toledo - 1936
The diversion was broken on 27 September 1936 but it gave the Republicans time to recuperate and resupply
Sieged Madrid multiple times, but failed until their victory on 27 March 1939
Madrid was the political, economic, and social center of the country
The fall of Madrid ended the war
Did purges, cleansing, “political readjustment”, destruction of cities, terrorized civilians
Those who wouldn’t support the Nationalists would either die or be scared into supporting
Any Republic supporter was killed
Republican tactics
Turned on the Church after Nationalist massacres, burned many churches
Killed Nationalist sympathizers in Madrid
Tactics were mainly unsuccessful, leading to many losses in battle
Tried to make strategic pushes to encircle the Nationalists, but this never worked and often the Republicans were encircled
Held on to key cities for most of the war
Didn’t experience as much success because their army was mostly made of inexperienced militiamen with bad supply
General Support
Half of the army supported the Republicans; the other half supported the Nationalists
Navy did not support Nationalists, so the Nationalists needed planes to get over the Strait of Gibraltar
Transport planes provided by Germany
Nationalists only managed to get support from half to two thirds of Spain, Republicans maintained support in key regions - Madrid, Catalunya, Basque, Asturias, Cantabria, Valencia
Franco
Led the Army of Africa, the only trained army because they recently fought in Morocco
Gained political power while other generals were focused on winning the war, led to him becoming the figurehead
Requested to become Commander-in-Chief because:
He had gotten Italy and Germany’s support
He was the commander of the African army
Other commanders were dead - Many died in plane crashes
He controlled the press office
The other generals voted him into that position
Needed ‘consent’ from the church, elites, and military
Set up the Supreme Court of Military Justice to prosecute his opposition
Years of War
1937
Nationalist Successes
Controlled 2/3 of the country
Had Italian help
Took Malaga
Took Asturias & Basque
Had the support of the German air force
Successfully showed power by destroying Guernica
Took Bilbao
Didn’t have political discourse
Destroyed Republican defenses
Encircled Republicans at Teruel
Republican Successes
Defensive victories at Madrid
Strengthened ties with the Soviets
Took Brunete (once, then it was recaptured) and Teruel
May Days
Anarchist uprising that happened in Barcelona between 3-8 May 1937
Fighting in the streets between the anarchists and the republicans
A civil war within a civil war
Various street battles in towns across Catalunya
This event showed how weak the Republicans were, as they were unable to stop an uprising from within
Also showed the lack of cohesion and disunity that the Republicans had and highlighted the distinct lack of these problems from the Nationalist side
The anarchists were angry at how they were being treated, as their militias were disbanded and the Republicans tried to integrate them into the larger army for more unity, but this had the opposite effect
1939
Nationalist Successes
Took Barcelona easily
Franco was recognized internationally as the head of the government
Took Madrid
Won the war
Republican Successes
No successes, as the war ended with a Nationalist victory
Successes / Failures of both sides
Republicans
Political Strengths
No records
Military Strengths
Was good at defending certain cities for some time, until they were overwhelmed by air power and lack of supplies
Economic Strengths
Had access to all of Spain’s gold reserves
Foreign Assistance Strengths
Arms supplied by the Soviet Union
35,000 international volunteers
Supported by Mexico, but not as much as the Soviet Union
Political Weaknesses
Disunity throughout the war
Communists vs Socialists
Anarchists started another revolution
Lots of infighting
Unable to stop Anarchist uprisings
Frequently changed leaders, which lead to instability within the government
Military Weaknesses
Disunity throughout the war
Only the communists got external support
No unified command
Separate political party militias wouldn’t work together
Some refused to be led by a command structure
Anarchists & Basques
Overly dependent on ineffective militias
Battlefields weren’t in range of the air force
Failed to sustain offensives
Economic Weaknesses
Sent all $40 million to the Soviet Union
Many areas taken over by workers committees
Production fell drastically
Food & material shortages
Low wages
Britain & France’s ‘Non-intervention Committee’ banned sales of arms to the Republic
Foreign Assistance Weaknesses
Got lower quality supplies from the Soviets
The Soviets scammed the Republic, not giving them the international standard price for the goods they were selling and not giving the standard amount of munitions per rifle
No Soviet troops were sent
1938 - Soviets withdrew support & all international brigades went home
Impact / Advancements of Technology
Nationalists
German support
Appear to have used early Panzer models, such as the Panzer I
Still weak and used in small numbers, not much impact on the war
German tank tactics did develop during the war, forming into early Blitzkrieg tactics
Used new fighters, such as the Bf109
Once they arrived, they were superior to Soviet aircraft
German air technology was important as it allowed for the airlift from Morocco to mainland Spain
German Condor legion supported pushes in the north, particularly in Basque country
German bombers, such as the Heinkel 111 were superior to Soviet bombers
Strategic bombing was an effective tactic
Italian support
The Nationalists appeared to use a modified form of the early Blitzkrieg tactic, combining infantry and armor
Italian tanks had done well in Ethiopia, and were used in Spain with the opposite effect. They were weak and often destroyed, killing the men inside
They only had 2 machine guns, so were outclassed by Soviet tanks
The whole tank had to move to move the turret
Small and poorly armored
Nationalist blockades were more successful than Republican attempts, but weren’t enough to cut off Republican supply and there were no major sea battles
Republicans
Soviet support
Tanks appeared to be very weak against fire, much more than Italian or German tanks
Likely due to the use of synthetic rubber in the coverings on bearings
This meant the Soviet tanks were weaker than the Germans, and possibly hindered the Spanish Republicans by getting men killed when they combusted
Once the Nationalists discovered this, they exploited it
Tanks had limited impact on the war
They were used in the defense of Madrid for a time, though this did not utilize their full potential
Development from the Soviet I-15 fighter aircraft to the I-16
In the beginning, the Soviet fighters were superior to Nationalist aircraft and contributed to the Republicans gaining air superiority
After the first months, the high number of more advanced German aircraft arriving in Nationalist Spain meant the Nationalists gained and maintained air superiority
Soviet fighters were still inferior to German aircraft
Tupolev SB-2 bomber was theoretically the most powerful bomber in Spain, but few were deployed and they performed badly
Soviet Union
Helped Republicans
Took Spain’s entire gold reserves in exchange for weapons
Withdrew before the war ended
Provided ideological and strategic support
Sent weapons and volunteers
Never sent actual troops, and the maximum amount of Soviets to be in Spain at one time is believed to be 700
Tried to make the war last longer for their own benefit
Portugal
20,000 troops sent to the Nationalists
Deterred Britain’s involvement through their alliance
Helped the Nationalists’ organization
Ensured trade could pass through to the Nationalists
France
Supported the Republicans
Didn’t do anything because of the non-intervention pact
Prime Minister Blum was non-interventionalist
He was worried intervening would cause a civil war in France
Gave up on Democracy
Had internal political divides, partially due to the Spanish Civil War
Accidentally hindered the Republicans
USA
Non-interventionist
Partially helped the Nationalists
War caused some internal divides
Government favored the Republic
Church favored the Nationalists
President of the Texaco Oil company supported the Nationalists and sold them oil
International Involvement
Nazi Germany
Sent supplies, weapons, and aircraft to the Nationalists
300 victories attributed to German assistance
Trained an estimated 56,000 Nationalist troops
Luftwaffe contributed to air superiority, which was crucial to many victories
Fascist Italy
Sent 75,000 troops to the Nationalists
Sent bombers, ships, and set up blockades
Effective blockades cut off Republican supply
Italian pilots shot down 903 Republican aircraft
Partook in 5300 air raids
International Brigades
Troops from all over the world, mainly helped the Republicans
Possibly contributed to the war, contribution is unknown
40,000 troops
Britain
Maintained neutrality and non-intervention
Allowed the Nationalists to use Gibraltar
It is argued that they helped the Nationalists by not helping the Republicans
Allowed aid to pass to Nationalists, this contributed to some victories
Worried a Fascist Spain would endanger power in the Mediterranean - Liddel Hart, Military theorist
Sympathized with the anti-revolutionary Nationalists
Economic investments into Spain
Demographic Impact
No formal peacemaking process as Franco consolidated power entirely
“It will bring me less glory but greater internal peace” - Franco, on his conduct during the war
Hundreds of thousands killed during & after the war, thousands locked in concentration camps
100,000 Republicans killed during the war
70,000 Nationalists killed during the war
250,000 Republican refugees fled to France, suffered in French internment camps
Franco launched ‘White Terror’ campaign (1936-1945)
Estimated 160,000 - 400,000 deaths
Meant to eradicate opposition
Republican children taken from parents to be re-educated, given to Nationalist or Catholic families or sent to orphanages
Spain remained deeply divided
Political Impact
Franco served as head of government until 1973 and then as head of state until his death in 1975
“White Terror” Political purges
1939 Law of Political Responsibility - Made Republicans liable to punishment
All industrial political activism was outlawed
CNT and UGT destroyed
Nationalists could seize land and impose fines without reconciliation
Ex-Republicans sentenced to hard labor
20,000 Republican prisoners worked in the construction of Valle de los Caídos, burial site of Jose Antonio Primo de Rivera & Franco (He was later moved)
200,000 prisoners peak
Nationalists got jobs and ex-republicans went hungry
Spain was badly isolated after 1945
Application to UN was refused
France closed the border for some time in 1946
Didn’t join the EU until 1986
European Union members couldn’t have dictatorships, so Spain was ineligible to join
No autonomy for Basque and Catalunya
Basque, Catalan, and Galician languages were banned
All power centralized in Madrid
Removal of all political opposition, which led to political stability
Power was divided equally between the Falange, military, monarchists, Church, and elites. No one party was allowed to dominate the government
Army was the ministry of the interior until 1969
Many got jobs just because they’re nationalist
Democracy restored in 1977 through popular vote
Nationalist Zones
Experienced more repression
Conservative views from Franco & the Falange
Lost rights
Women fulfilled traditional roles
Girls were taught a separate curriculum to boys that prepared them for domestic life
Sex outside marriage was forbidden
From 1937, women had to run youth centers and soldier canteens
Labor charter of 1938 excluded women from industrial work
Republican women were humiliated and raped
Post-War
“The state will free married women from the workshop and the factory” - Franco
Abortion and contraceptives were made illegal in 1941
Republican children taken away from mothers at birth
Mothers told their babies had died
Children given to Nationalist families
Up to 30,000 children may have been abducted
Child kidnapping became a state policy
Seccion Feminina encouraged women to engage in sport
Football, rowing, and wrestling were banned for girls
Led by Pilar Primo de Rivera, sister of Jose Antonio
She was very sexist against women
279,697 members by late 1973
Wives had to be loyal and stay at home
Women could not be judges or diplomats for most of the regime
In 1975, female literacy rate was below 90%
Not much education for women
Men were ‘intellectually superior’ to women
Women had to dress modestly, no exposing themselves ‘indecently’
Swimsuits had to cover modestly
Rules relaxed around the 60s, when Spain opened to tourism, as to not make tourists think Spain was bad
Effects of War
Long & Short term impacts
Social Impact
Long lasting effects on social capital and trust
Society was divided, leading to distrust between political factions
Francoist regime targeted political opponents in “social cleansing”
Also targeted Catalan nationalists and homosexuals
Regime burnt libraries and persecuted intellectuals to reshape Spanish identity and society along Nationalist lines
Fundamentally transformed society
Society changed more between 1955-75 than it had in the previous century
The time after the war was dubbed the “Peace of Franco”
Birth rates declined from 123.75/1000 to 28.12/1000
People enjoyed football, Real Madrid beat the Soviet Union in 1972
Economic Impact
Spanish economy grew faster than any other western nation
By the end of Franco’s rule; 40% of labor force worked in services, 38% in industry, & 22% in agriculture
More money was spent on education than the armed forces
Per capita income per year was 2000 dollars in 1973
Economic injustices remained
Rich had more of the national income than any other Western European country
Poor were still poor and had bad housing & health facilities
Spain was isolated, not allowed to join the European Economic Community
Short term: 10-15% of wealth was destroyed during the war
Per capita income fell by 28% between 1935 and 1939
70% of Madrid’s factory machinery had to be replaced
Communication systems needed to be replaced
Republican land reforms were reversed
Massive debts to pay, Britain and Germany demanded repayment, Italy sent Franco a bill, Soviets claimed Spain still owed them
General labor shortages due to so many workers being killed
Economy improved during World War Two because Spain was neutral
Economy modernized in 1950s and 60s during the Cold War
USA aided Franco during the Cold War to get his support
Hundreds of millions of dollars in aid
Average wages tripled in the 60s
Development of tourism, as many people ‘discovered’ Spain
Provided lots of jobs
Reduced unemployment in the south
Many young people went abroad to work and sent money back
Stabilization plan of 1959
Attracted foreign investors
Began to open the economy to a freer market
Abandoned Autarky
Less economically isolated
Foreign investors attracted by cheap labor force
Role and Status of Women
Republican Zones
Treated equal as men
Represented in government
Frederica Montseny - First woman cabinet member in Spanish history
Worked to legalize abortion in Catalunya
Women were independent and liberated
Had significant political influence
Could enter the military until later in the war
Milicianas - Female fighter militias
>1000 Milicianas
Change in attitude towards women
Post-War
Illegal to teach sex education
Voluntary sterilization was banned
Midwives marginalized when suspected of encouraging contraception
Girls as young as 9 would be punished with prison for being related to Republicans, some were assaulted
Single pregnant teenage girls were placed into maternity prisons like at Peña Grande
They stayed until they were 25
Men could come and take one
Women would kill themselves by throwing themselves off a stairwell
Married women could only work with the permission of their husbands
Married women who worked lost their child benefits
Women had to clean, cook, and raise children
Generally, women remained working as seamstresses, in the textile industry, cleaners, receptionists, and in the health sector
Received worse pay
35% of secondary students were women, 14.5% of university students were women in 1950 and 26.6% in 1970
Nationalist women would believe these are good changes
Primo de Rivera lost support from the elites, which was a major issue in his regime. He lost this support from the groups in society whose interests Rivera’s regime had damaged.
Antonio Ramos Oliveira - Spanish Historian
Focus on social and political polarization before the war. The war came from deep rooted structural issues, and social and economic grievances
Both sides were extreme
Critical of Franco and his crushing reforms that could have modernized Spain but didn’t to maintain traditional values
Helen Graham - British Historian
Highlights the class struggle and popular mobilization
Importance of the social impacts of the war, such as experiences of women, peasants, and workers
Julian Casanova - Spanish Historian
Gil Robles was essentially a fascist and had he gained power, he would have established a fascist dictatorship
Primo de Rivera’s legacy was significant due to excessive spending, borrowing, and government debt, and government debt. It was a negative legacy, but still significant
Focuses on human suffering, especially under Franco
Criticizes Franco’s aims, policies, and persecution of Republicans
Paul Preston - British Historian, Spanish Specialist
By making Spain more prosperous, Franco created cultures of evasion. Most people were too busy watching TV to care about politics
Raymond Carr - British Historian
“The Spanish struggle is the fight of reaction against the people, against freedom”
Pablo Picasso
“There is no alternative but to destroy and rebuild society from its foundations”
Francisco Largo Caballero, 1933
“Germany needs to import ore. That is why we want a nationalist government in Spain”
Adolf Hitler
Historiography
“Calvo Sotelo’s death ... persuaded dithering officers to participate in the plans for a coup that had been underway since the right had lost the political argument in a democratic ballot”
Francisco J Romero Salvadó - Spanish Historian
Political factors were the main problem in Primo de Rivera’s regime. Migration from the countryside to find work in the cities led to an increase in the number of urban workers who were more receptive to radical politics.
Shlomo Ben Ami - Israeli Historian & former diplomat
Primo de Rivera’s legacy was positive. The public works program was the basis for further modernization under the Second Republic, and Primo de Rivera’s regime laid the foundation for the existence of the Second Republic.
Focuses on the failures of the Republic, as this caused the war
The Republic was doomed from the start due to political instability, social polarization, internal weaknesses, and failure to unify against Falangists
France and Britain stood by and let the Nationalists take over and grow in Europe. Lack of international support to the Republicans built morale within the Nationalists, as they thought the non-intervention committee was indirectly supporting the Nationalists
Gabriel Jackson - American Historian
Non-intervention was a strategic failure. France and Britain should have enforced it on the other signatories. Germany and Italy would have given into Britain due to Britain’s naval power
The main issues within the Republic were the internal political and social divisions
War was a clash between extreme ideologies, not just democracy and fascism
AJP Taylor - British Historian
“The war was decided in the chancelleries of Europe rather than on the battlefields of Spain”
Hugh Trevor Roper - British Historian
“All the convents in Madrid are not worth the life of a single Republican”
Manuel Azaña
Miss Canary Islands 1936
Franco’s nickname
Dr. Negrin’s resistance pills
Nickname for lentils
Economic factors were the main problem in Primo de Rivera’s regime. People had high expectations, and these were not met with the onset of the economic slump in the 1920s. The social and economic elite wanted protection, but the peasants wanted economic reform. The government couldn’t meet the expectations of the two opposing sides. Reforms were implemented, people expected change, but change did not happen. The great depression hit the government hard due to the heavy borrowing and debt.
Liberal-leaning, emphasizes the tragedy of war.
War was the progressive left versus the authoritarian right
International support from Germany, Italy, and Russia was important to determining the outcome of the war
Hugh Thomas - British Historian
Conservative leaning, but critical of both sides
The role of the Soviet Union was important, as the Republic was significantly compromised by dependence on the Soviets
Highlights the disfunction of the Republicans
This war wasn’t simply, “defense of democracy against fascist aggression” as many think
Stanley Payne - American Historian
“By turning a blind eye both to the intervention of the dictators and to the need to protect British shipping to Spain, the British government aided Franco just as decisively as if it had sent arms to him”
Jill Edwards
Fascist Spain would endanger British naval dominance in the Mediterranean
The tanks used in Spain were obsolete and of poor quality
Liddell Hart - British Military Historian
“It is necessary to defeat Socialism… what does it matter if we have to shed blood?”
Gil Robles, 1933
“You can go proudly. You are history. You are legend”
Dolores Ibarruri, to the International Brigades
“[The Nationalists are conducting a] crusade against Communism to save religion, the father, and the family”
Bishop of Salamanca
“[Guernica was] flaming to end to end… the streets became long heaps of red impenetrable debris”
George Steer - British Historian